What is Philosophy as demonstrated in Medieval Philosophy?
Philosophy as demonstrated in Medieval Philosophy is an
inquiry to know about God using reason. This is to say that reason is used to
know and study the object of faith which is God. The two philosophers discussed
are Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. Both of them claim that reason is used to understand
this God.
AUGUSTINE
Philosophy, according to Augustine based on the eighth book
of his work “City of God”, is an inquiry to know about God using reason under
the Christian perspective. In this book, he discussed how philosophers or
thinkers used different methods and forms that are reached by reason to study this
God. All efforts in studying the natural, moral, rational and theological aspects
of the world lead to nature of God.
Chapter 2
In this particular chapter, Augustine discussed the Pre-Socratic
philosophers’ or thinkers’ inquiry of the natural world. They want to know the
nature and origin of things. The inquiry of the nature and origin of things
however, is directed to God.
Augustine started by introducing the two schools of
philosophers namely the Italic and Ionic school. The Italic school is founded
by Pythagoras of Samos to whom the word “philosophy” owes its origin. Augustine
did not deal in with him and his followers as his main concern is with the
other school.
He then proceeded in discussing the philosophers or thinkers
under the Ionic school. He began by discussing Thales who was the founder of
the said school. Thales presented that all things are composed of water. Water
is the first principle of things. All things and elements of the world
including the world itself are caused in it. However, Thales did not account of
it having the nature of the divine. Augustine criticized this thought by saying
that if Thales was trying to account for the nature of everything, then how
come he wasn’t able to include the Being itself? If Thales wanted to know the
nature of everything, then he must also consider the nature of the immaterial
things such as the Being or the divine. Also, if indeed water was the first
principle of things, then every change must be caused and accounted to the
water but, as water changes form such as ice, it is proven that it cannot
change itself relying on its own principles. It needed other principles such as
coldness. Therefore, water cannot be the first principle of things as it needed
other principles to cause change.
The same error can be found with Anaximander who claimed
that “each thing sprang form its own proper principle.” Unlike Thales,
Anaximander did not say that everything sprang from a single principle but, basing
from his thought that implies the world as eternal world- the elements that
formed the world had been existing over time- and has been infinitely shifting,
he refers the nature and origin of things as something from the world and, like
Thales, did not attribute to anything divine.
Anaximenes attributed the nature and origin of things to an
infinite air. It was from him that the possibility of the existence of God was
considered as he did not affirm nor deny the existence of God or of gods.
Since the two did not account anything to the divine and
Anaximenes did not affirm nor deny God’s existence, the three of them are
confined into answering the nature and origin of things as something material.
They’ve accounted the first principle of things to something found in this
world only which means that it is not sufficient enough for it cannot explain
the existence of immaterial things such as the Being or the divine. They’ve
suggested that these materials could stand themselves in which Augustine
disproves of.
Anaxagoras, one of the followers of Anaximenes, was the one
who affirmed the thing his master did not responded to. He said that the
productive cause of all things is the divine mind. Everything is composed of an
infinite matter which is only efficient because of the divine mind. He used a
material object, which is earth, although not mentioned in the text, but
attributed its efficiency to the divine mind. In other words, the infinite
matter cannot function properly without the divine mind.
The same thing is said by Diogenes, another follower of
Anaximenes. He stated that the first principle of all things is air, agreeing
to his mentor, but it is possessed by what he calls the divine reason. He also
used matter but it is under the guidance of the divine mind. He accounted that
nothing can be produced without the air possessed of a divine reason.
Lastly, Archelaus, the same with Anaxagoras and Diogenes,
claims that the homogeneous particle, presumably matter, pervaded by the divine
mind is the cause and the first principle of things.
With the attachment of the divine mind as the efficient
cause, to which everything is made, the later Pre-Socratics were able to answer
the question of why the world is made as it is and not just what and how it is
made. Augustine was able to conclude
that with material object alone, it cannot explain the causes of the changes in
the world as it needs another principle. In this way, the formation of the
world is comprehensible as there is an account that explains the changes.
With this, it can be understood
that Augustine was finding a certain source that could explain the nature and
origin of things in which he found in the divine mind. Thus, the direction of
the inquiry is towards the divine mind or what he calls God.
Chapter 3
In this chapter, Augustine discussed Socrates’ effort on then
study of the correction and regulation of manners. He emphasized the importance
of this as it is a way to understand and achieve the “chief good” that is a
prerequisite of achieving the blessed life.
Socrates, coming after the Pre-Socratics, deviated from
their inquiry of the natural world and focused instead to the more important
inquiry which is of the self. He said that the inquiry of the self is something
“manifest and “certain”, thus the inquiry of other things is easier to be
sought.
Augustine, however, is not certain why Socrates deviated
from the inquiry of the natural world. He said that it may be because he is
tired of uncertain things or because he saw that minds filled with earthly
desires is not fitted to do divinely things. Nevertheless, in both cases, it is
certain that Socrates’ attention is not of the physical and natural world but of
something else. Although, it is also evident that Socrates, just like the
Pre-Socratics, is in search of the causes of things in which these causes are
identified to be the one true and supreme God.
Knowing the causes of things is what Socrates calls as the
achievement of the “chief good”, which is necessary in attaining a blessed
life. Since the goal is to have a blessed life, Augustine argues that the path
taken should be towards the self. The inquiry must be towards the inside of the
person since it concerns his self. The achievement of the “chief good” can be
done through the purification of the person’s life which is attained when one
has perfected his way of life. This perfection of a person’s way of life is
done through the regulation and contemplation of manners. Through this, the
mind would be empty of the faulty thoughts presented by the natural world which
would pave way for a more purified understanding of the causes and of the divine.
A purified mind, brought by a successful inquiry of the self, can see and know
more the evident truths which are immaterial in nature. Successful examination
of the self bears more certain generalizations.
According to Augustine, the attainment of the blessed life
is when one has achieved the “chief good” which Socrates was in search for
though he wasn’t sure what it was exactly. According to Augustine, this “chief
good” is referred to as God. Since the chief good is the end of a person’s
actions, therefore God is the one who prevents absurdity in man’s life. Arriving
at the chief or final good (ultimate cause) determines the purpose of the
person’s life. According to Augustine, he was not sure whether Socrates was
able to achieve his final good or he was able to achieve it though he was not
willing to accept it.
The said Socratic effort on stressing for a blessed life
through correction and regulation of manners proves that there is something
more than the material world. Something sought is not purely matter. The causes
of things do not necessarily mean that they are found in the physical and
natural world.
Chapter 4
In this chapter, Augustine discussed Plato’s study of wisdom
which consists of the inquiry to the causes of existence, inquiry to the
ultimate reason for understanding and inquiry to the end in reference to which
the whole life is to be regulated. Here, Augustine interprets Plato in way that
fused the two parts of philosophy and formed it into a one whole philosophy.
Augustine started by saying that the study of wisdom has two
parts called as action and contemplation. Action refers to the conduct of life
and contemplation refers to the investigation into the causes of nature and
into pure thought. These are the parts of philosophy that were exercised by
Socrates and Pythagoras. Socrates in the apart of action while Pythagoras for
contemplation. For Plato however, he combined the two separate parts and
reconciled each to become one. He then
divides it into three parts: (1) moral which is the end of all actions, (2)
natural which is the cause of all nature and (3) rational which is the light of
the intelligences.
Because of the descriptions given by the tripartite
division, Plato is somehow suggesting that a person is driven to a particular
goal. Each of them requires an end or a beginning. It suggests that somehow, it
leads to something. Although the following may not certainly come from Plato,
it is nonetheless used by his predecessors. Now, according to the close
Platonists, Plato perhaps entertained the idea of God thus admitting that the
cause of a person’s existence (natural), the ultimate reason for understanding
(rational) and the end in reference to which the whole life is to be regulated (moral)
are found in God. God is the cause of all natures, light of understanding and
end of action.
It is also in this chapter that Augustine’s idea of
philosophy can be explicitly found. It is in this chapter where he incorporated
all the parts of philosophy which are sought by different philosophers or
thinkers. It is also here where he made clear that the efforts in which people
philosophize are all directed to God. All of the person’s pursuit of the
different areas of life may it be on the way he/she lives his/her life, on the
inquiry of the nature and causes of things, etc. leads to God.
Therefore, the study of wisdom which consists of the inquiry
to the causes of existence, inquiry to the ultimate reason for understanding
and inquiry to the end in reference to which the whole life is to be regulated
are to be found in God.
Chapter 5
In this chapter, Augustine discussed that of all the
philosophers who used different methods, the Platonists has the most preferable
discussions on matters about God, which he named Theology, because it was in
them that all the methods are fused into one leaving no method unnecessary for
the investigation of God. Here, Augustine justifies how God is explained with
the use of reason.
Before justifying God using reason, Augustine first acknowledged
the existence of different Theologies at his time. These Theologies however are
those types of Theologies which should not be followed. He made clear though
that the Platonic Theology is different from these other Theologies.
The different Theologies that existed were Fabulous Theology
and Civil Theology. Fabulous Theology refers to the gods which are contained in
Roman and Greek mythologies. According to Augustine, this is not the kind of
Theology that a wise man must follow for it shows that the gods are immoral
beings. The gods contained in the stories of, for example, Homer are gods which
sets bad examples to the people like committing mortal sins such as adultery.
This kind of teaches a person to commit sin because he/she will be forgiven
anyway just like how the gods are forgiven even how grievous that may be. Civil
Theology refers to the gods who are previously humans but were promoted as
gods. They are those human beings who were divinized and became gods. They are
not divine from the start.
Augustine claimed the primacy of the Platonic Theology over
these Theologies because they are not the kind of Theology that is to be
followed since they instil wrong conceptions of a God. For example is that it
the gods would make a bet and use their powers to make their warriors win in a
battle. This is as if the human life is a toy to the gods and it permissible to
use people for personal interest. They are not to be followed because they
present a wrong God. The gods that they have are contrary to the nature of the
God that Augustine wanted to present. There are many gods in these Theologies
which is contrary to the nature of a one and true God. Another thing is that
they look like they are reflections of man. For example is that the God can be
a human in which Augustine would argue that a God does not have any human
nature but only of the divine.
These types of Theologies, according to Augustine should not
be worshipped. He stated that the Platonic Theology is the Theology who has
recognized a one true God to whom all things were made, to whom the light of
truth was found and to whom the bountiful blessings were obtained. The nature
of Augustine’s God is also someone who is not enslaved by the material body.
Augustine’s Theology is not something that associates the origin, nature and
principle of all things to that which is composed of matter because matter
changes. Augustine’s Theology is not an inquiry to that which is materially
perceived but it is an inquiry to that which is not seen for Augustine’s God is
a spiritual God. It is a soul and not a material principle. Since it is a soul,
it is unchangeable, an attribute which refers only to a divine entity.
Chapter 9,10,11
In chapters 9, 10 and 11, Augustine discussed that
philosophy, especially Platonic Philosophy, talks about truths about God. The
measure for certainty of the claim rests upon the knowledge found in the
religion Christianity. The following chapter provided different supports for
this claim. Chapter 9 talks about concepts of Platonic Philosophy, or which can
also be called Philosophical Theology, about God resembling concepts of God in
the Christian doctrines. Chapter 10 talks about the primacy of Christianity
over all philosophies. Lastly, chapter 11 talks about Platonic Philosophy
having almost the same ideas as to Christianity.
In chapter 9, it was discussed that the claim of the
Platonic Philosophy that God is both the maker of all created things, the light
by which things are known, and the good in reference to which things are to be
done can also be found in Christianity which they just term as the first principle
of nature, the truth of doctrine, and the happiness of life. The resemblance
can be seen for example when Plato attributed God as the first principle of all
things that is almost the same term used by Christianity but they just used
“nature” instead of “all things”. The resemblance is a proof that Platonic
Philosophy is talking about truths about God and that their attributes offers
an understanding of this God.
In chapter 10, it was discussed that even how accurate the
findings of the philosophies may seem to be, still Christianity offers the
better standards for wisdom because it was divinely revealed to them. They are
more informed than the philosophers because of their Christian Revelation that
was handed into them by the divine. With the case of the philosophers, there is
still a chance that they may fall into false wisdom because they are still
searching for it while the Christians already have it. Since Christians are
exposed to this wisdom, Augustine says that whatever is contrary to the Christian
Revelation is a deceit because it would turn away from the truth that is
already revealed. Augustine, in this matter, recognizes that the wisdom
philosophers are searching for has already been in possession of the Christians
thus Christianity is better than any philosophy. Although not all philosophers
are deceitful and offers wisdom about God, still philosophy has the capacity to
fall into error.
In chapter 11, Augustine presented
Plato’s possible acquisition of knowledge about God from the influences of
Christianity. First, he presented that in some way some, he might have met
Jeremiah the prophet but according to the order of events in history, Plato was
born a hundred years after Jeremiah had preached. Also, Augustine presented the
possibility of reading prophetic scriptures but again, according to the order
in history, Plato died seventy years before there were any Greek translations
of the scriptures. Therefore, Plato could not have been influenced by
Christianity.
Although Plato and the Platonic Philosophy has almost the
same principles as to Christianity still, even Plato fell short of the wisdom
the Christians possess. This is because he was not able to live up the truths
about God that he knew. He did not translate those ideas into concrete actions.
By this way, Plato is contradicting himself. He is saying that he had already
knew truths about God but his actions are not speaking for it because he still
remained a pagan. With this, Augustine is saying, in relation to chapter 10,
the ideas might have similarities but Christianity is still superior than
philosophy because Christians have known truths about God and they’ve lived it
up while philosophers like Plato might have known it but he did not acted upon
it.
In chapters 9, 10, and 11, Augustine discussed that
philosophy, especially Platonic Philosophy, talks about truths about God.
Although in the last three chapters, Augustine is saying that no matter how
much philosophy might know, Christianity would always be ahead of it because
the wisdom philosophers are seeking are already been revealed to the
Christians.
Conclusion to Augustine
Philosophy, according to Augustine based on the eighth book
of his work “City of God”, is an inquiry to know God using reason under
Christian perspective. In this book, he discussed how philosophers or thinkers
used different methods and forms that are reached by reason to study this God.
All efforts in studying the natural, moral, rational and theological aspects of
the world lead to nature of God.
Throughout the given chapters, Augustine presented a
progression of ideas of the Greeks especially those from the Ionic school. It
showed how they shifted from an inquiry of the natural world answering it with
the use of matter to attributing it to the divine. From there, Augustine
shifted from an inquiry of the external and natural world to the internal which
is the self through an investigation of the way a person must live. In here,
Augustine presented that the end, in which all of the efforts exerted here, is
knowing and understanding the final good which is God. On the next chapter, the
two types of philosophies discussed are fused to make one under Plato and the
Platonists. Here, the two philosophies are added with rational philosophy to
complete the tripartite division of Plato’s philosophical theology. In the
proceeding chapter, Augustine discusses that out of the philosophies, Plato’s
philosophical theology or the Platonic Philosophy is most preferable philosophy
because it presented the most favourable discussion about Augustine’s take on
philosophy which is the inquiry to know about God using reason that accords the
Christian doctrines.
Augustine’s philosophy is an inquiry to know about God using
reason that accords the Christian doctrines because in the arguments presented,
his reasons are presenting facts about God but all of it is in the light of
Christian reasoning. For example is that Fabulous and Civil Theology should not
be followed because they presents too many gods. He supports this claim by saying
that having too many gods contradicts the nature of God as one. Now this kind
of reasoning is found on the Christian belief that there is only one God.
THOMAS AQUINAS
Philosophy according to Thomas Aquinas based on his book
Summa Theologia, is an inquiry to know about God using reason. For St. Thomas,
Philosophy only deals on the things that can be understood by reason and
extends its subject to all beings including God. If the end is to know about
God, St. Thomas argues that reason alone is not enough to explain and
understand the fullness of God.
In the proceeding sections, St. Thomas will first present
answers from his students that will show that Philosophy deals only to things
that can be known. On the later part, he will then present his own idea with
regards to the same matter. The question “What is Medieval Philosophy according
to Thomas Aquinas?” is drawn from their inquiry of having other doctrines
besides Philosophy.
Objection 1
In objection number one, one student of St. Thomas said that
there is no need for another teaching beyond Philosophy because a person should
not seek to know things beyond reason.
From here, it can be understood that Philosophy is considered to deal
with things that are in the bounds of reason. It deals with the things that can
be known and explained by the human mind. Whatever is beyond reason then is
incomprehensible so, it would be a waste of time to talk about it since it is
only a hypothesis or a claim. Meaning, it is unproven because it was not
understood through the language of logic. Also, this claim is supported by a
scripture in the bible saying that “Seek not the things that are beyond you”. The
verse claims that a person must not seek the things that he/she cannot know.
According to this student, since Philosophy deals with
things that are bound within the limits of reason, anything beyond reason
should not be sought because it is incomprehensible. Therefore, a person should
not seek what is not dealt in Philosophy.
Objection 2
In the objection two, a student of St. Thomas stated that
there is no need for another discipline beyond philosophy because all knowledge
is about the truth which is the being. Here, the subject for what is dealt in
Philosophy is introduced. It is stated that what can be known are things that
are true and the things that are true are the beings. What can be known by
reason, therefore are only the beings. This being deals with anything that can
be logically and empirically proven. Meaning, the being can be explained
through the language of reason using experience. Experience now is the medium
to which reason is acquired.
Now, if all knowledge is true, and truth and being are
convertible, then all knowledge is about the being. The student even added that
philosophy deals with all types of being even God. In here, the student claims
that God is a being that can be explained through reason. God is taken as a
reality that is true and comprehensible and can be known through experience. The
student claims that the complex idea of God is dealt within Philosophy. If this
is so, then nothing outside philosophy is needed. It is not needed as knowledge is already in
philosophy. It only implies that philosophy is limited to what can be known and
what can be known extends even to that which is complex. If anything can be
known, then finding other disciplines would only be superfluous.
On the contrary
Unlike the first two sections which the students claim that
there is no need for other doctrines besides Philosophy, in this part, one
student of St. Thomas stated that there is a need of other doctrines in
response to the question. In the student’s answer, he/she recognizes that Philosophy
is dealt within reason. He/she knows that Philosophy deals with knowledge that
can be explained in the language of reason. It deals with knowledge that is
true in accordance to the knowledge a person is able to acquire through
experience. Philosophy then, is an activity that is in the realm of the mind
known through the medium of the physical world.
The student also recognizes though, that God is not solely
comprehended using Philosophy that is why he/she presented the option for another
doctrine. He/she stated that God inspired the sacred scriptures. These sacred scriptures
however, are not dealt in Philosophy. He/she stated that the sacred scriptures
are not properties or are not subject of the mind. This suggests that there are
things about God which reason cannot reach. These things which reason cannot
reach are subject to non-rational aspects. Although non-rational, these sacred
scriptures are necessary in knowing and understanding God but, sacred
scriptures, which are non-rational, are not part of philosophy. The student
introduces the idea that reason alone cannot know the fullness of this God.
Now, the student suggests that another doctrine must be
pursued because the sacred scripture, which is important in understanding God,
is not dealt in Philosophy. The doctrine proposed is as important as Philosophy
in the same manner. The student saw the need for another doctrine and this
doctrine should be divinely inspired.
I answer that,
In this part of the paper, I will discuss St. Thomas’ answer
to the question. St. Thomas’ claim is that divine revelation is needed as the
“other” doctrine mentioned. With this, St. Thomas actually has two reasons for
this first, divine revelation is necessary because it deals with truths beyond
reason and second, because it deals even with truths within reason.
First and foremost, he stated that man is directed to God, with
respect to it being the end. But this God surpasses the grasp of a person’s
reason (as what has been mentioned in the “on the contrary”). Meaning, God is
not part of the beings that can only be understood using reason. He is not part
of the beings that can be comprehended using only the mind. He continues to say that man is directed to
the end and it must be known. Since the end is God, therefore God must first be
known. Here, St. Thomas clarifies that a person is directed to God but this God
is not known and not understood using reason alone.
Philosophy, on the other hand, does not deal with things
that are beyond reason. It focuses only to the things that reason can reach.
But, since a person is directed to know the end, he/she is led to know God, an
entity that surpasses reason. St. Thomas continues to say that such direction
to God is known through divine revelation. The divine revelation now deals with
things that are not dealt in Philosophy; those that surpasses reason.
Therefore, divine revelation is necessary because a person is directed to God,
a being that exceeds reason, and the only way to know Him is through divine
revelation.
For the second reason, St. Thomas argues that all people
need to be saved. Salvation, however, is attained when a person knows the truth
about God. The truth about God can be known using Philosophy and scriptures.
For salvation to be attained, one of these two must be sought by a person. But
according to St. Thomas, not all people know Philosophy because it is hard to
discover. If it would be discovered, it would be known for a long a time and it
is possible that it would be subject to many errors. Now that Philosophy is out
of the choices, one is left with the scriptures. The scriptures are better
option in knowing God because it is already available to all. It is already
given. If a person wants to be saved, all he/she has to do is to know the
scriptures. The scriptures, however is obtained through divine revelation. Therefore,
divine revelation is necessary because everybody needs salvation and it can be
known if one knows God which can be known, without hassle, through divine
revelation.
Conclusion to Thomas Aquinas
Philosophy according to Thomas Aquinas based on his book
Summa Theologia, is an inquiry to know about God using reason. For St. Thomas,
Philosophy is a study to know the end in which a person is directed to using
only reason.
St. Thomas take on Philosophy is a study using reason which
extends to all beings including God. This means that Philosophy only deals with
knowledge about truths that the mind can reach through the person’s experience.
Although in pursuit of knowing God, St. Thomas introduced
another doctrine in which God can be fully known. He is known not only through
the theories formed by the mind but also through the non-rational aspects. It
is because reason does not expand to the realm of God. For St. Thomas, God is a
complex entity that surpasses the capacity of reason. If one is to know and
understand God, he/she cannot use reason alone as it is not a sufficient way to
use. The idea of God spreads far more than what knowledge can acquire using
reason. By this, it can be clearly understood that Philosophy for St. Thomas is
using reason to know God.
CONCLUSION
Philosophy as demonstrated in Medieval Philosophy is an
inquiry to know about God using reason. This is to say that reason is used to
know and study the object of faith which is God. Both Augustine and Thomas
Aquinas had mentioned that Philosophy only deals with natures that can be
comprehended using knowledge acquired through logical and empirical
investigation. Other than that, philosophy has no access to.
Both of the philosophers treated Philosophy as an inquiry
about God but their methods are of the use of reason. For Augustine, he used
the kind of reasoning Christians have. The way he describes this God, His
nature and everything is based on the God of the Christians. His inquiry is
using reason under Christian perspective. St. Thomas, on the other hand, used
the method of using reason based on what can be known through experience. His
inquiry to know God is sought through pure reason.
________
Source
Schaff, P. (1896). Augustine on Ancient Philosophy (M. Dods,
Trans.).
In Klima, G.,
Allhoff, F., & Vaidya, A. (Ed.). Medieval
Philosophy:
Essential Readings with Commentary
(pp. 36-37).
Blackwell Publishing: Australia.
